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October 27, 2014 by clayton Leave a Comment

What is a PLC?

A Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC, is more or less a tiny computer with a built-in operating system (OS).

This OS is highly specialized to handle incoming events in real time, i.e. at the time of their occurrence. The PLC has input lines where sensors are connected to notify upon events (e.g. temperature above/below a certain level, liquid level reached, etc.), and it has output lines to signal any reaction to the incoming events (e.g. start an engine, open/close a valve, etc.) The system is user programmable. It uses a language called “Relay Ladder” or “Relay Ladder Logic”. The name of this language implies the fact that the control logic of the earlier days, which was built from relays, is being simulated.

The PLCs purpose in life

The PLC is primarily used to control machinery. A program is written for the PLC which turns on and off outputs based on input conditions and the internal program. In this aspect, a PLC is similar to a computer. However, a PLC is designed to be programmed once, and run repeatedly as needed. In fact, a crafty programmer could use a PLC to control not only simple devices such as a garage door opener, but their whole house, including turning lights on and off at certain times, monitoring a custom built security system, etc.

Most commonly, a PLC is found inside of a machine in an industrial environment. A PLC can run an automatic machine for years with little human intervention. They are designed to and withstand most harsh environments a PLC will encounter.

History of PLCs

When the first electronic machine controls were designed, they used relays to control the machine logic (i.e. press “Start” to start the machine and press “Stop” to stop the machine). A basic machine might need a wall covered in relays to control all of its functions. There are a few limitations to this type of control.

Relays fail.

The delay when the relay turns on/off.

There is an entire wall of relays to design/wire/troubleshoot.

A PLC overcomes these limitations ,it is a machine controlled operation.

Recent developments

PLCs are becoming more and more intelligent. In recent years PLCs have been integrated into electrical networks i.e. all the PLCs in an industrial environment have been plugged into a network which is usually hierarchically organized. The PLCs are then supervised by a control center. There exist many proprietary types of networks. One type which is widely known is SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition).

Basic Concepts

 

How the PLC operates

The PLC is a purpose-built machine control computer designed to read digital and analog inputs from various sensors, execute a user defined logic program, and write the resulting digital and analog output values to various out put elements like hydraulic and pneumatic actuators,indication lamps,hooters, solenoid coils etc.

Scan cycle

Exact details vary between manufacturers, but most PLCs follow a ‘scan-cycle’ format.

Overhead

Overhead includes testing I/O module integrity, verifying the user program logic hasn’t changed, that the computer itself hasn’t locked up (via a watchdog timer), and any necessary communications. Communications may include traffic over the PLC programmer port, remote I/O racks, and other external devices such as HMIs (Human Machine Interfaces).

Input scan

A ‘snapshot’ of the digital and analog values present at the input cards is saved to an input memory table.

Logic execution

The user program is scanned element by element, then rung by rung until the end of the program, and resulting values written to an output memory table.

Output scan

Values from the resulting output memory table are written to the output modules.

Once the output scan is complete the process repeats itself until the PLC is powered down.

The time it takes to complete a scan cycle is, appropriately enough, the “scan cycle time”, and ranges from hundreds of milliseconds (on older PLCs, and/or PLCs with very complex programs) to only a few milliseconds on newer PLCs, and/or PLCs executing short, simple code.

Basic instructions

 

Be aware that specific nomenclature and operational details vary widely between PLC manufacturers, and often implementation details evolve from generation to generation.

Often the hardest part, especially for a beginning PLC programmer, is practicing the mental ju-jitsu necessary to keep the nomenclature straight from manufacturer to manufacturer.

Positive Logic (most PLCs follow this convention)

True = logic 1 = input energized.

False = logic 0 = input NOT energized.

Negative Logic

True = logic 0 = input NOT energized

False = logic 1 = input energized.

Normally Open

(XIC) – eXamine If Closed.

This instruction is true (logic 1) when the hardware input (or internal relay equivalent) is energized.

Normally Closed

(XIO) – eXamine If Open.

This instruction is true (logic 1) when the hardware input (or internal relay equivalent) is NOT energized.

Output Enable

(OTE) – OuTput Enable.

This instruction mimics the action of a conventional relay coil.

On Timer

(TON) – Timer ON.

Generally, ON timers begin timing when the input (enable) line goes true, and reset if the enable line goes false before setpoint has been reached. If enabled until setpoint is reached then the timer output goes true, and stays true until the input (enable) line goes false.

Off Timer

(TOF) – Timer OFf.

Generally, OFF timers begin timing on a true-to-false transition, and continue timing as long as the preceding logic remains false. When the accumulated time equals setpoint the TOF output goes on, and stays on until the rung goes true.

Retentive Timer

(RTO) – Retentive Timer On.

This type of timer does NOT reset the accumulated time when the input condition goes false.

Rather, it keeps the last accumulated time in memory, and (if/when the input goes true again) continues timing from that point. In the Allen-Bradley construction this instruction goes true once setpoint (preset) time has been reached, and stays true until a RES (RESet) instruction is made true to clear it.

Latching Relays

(OTL) – OuTput Latch.

(OTU) – OuTput Unlatch.

Generally, the unlatch operator takes precedence. That is, if the unlatch instruction is true then the relay output is false even though the latch instruction may also be true. In Allen-Bradley ladder logic (and others) latch and unlatch relays are seperate operators.

However, other ladder dialects opt for a single operator modeled after RS (Reset-Set) flip-flop integrated circuit chip logic.

 

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October 27, 2014 by clayton Leave a Comment

Spot Welding

Spot welding is a resistance welding method used to join two to Three overlapping metal sheets which are up to 3 mm thick each. In some applications with only two overlapping metal sheets, the sheet thickness can be up to 6 mm. Two copper electrodes are simultaneously used to clamp the metal sheets together and to pass current through the sheets. When the current is passed through the electrodes to the sheets, heat is generated due to the higher electrical resistance where the surfaces contact each other.

As the heat dissipates into the work, the rising temperature causes a rising resistance, and the heat is then generated by the current through this resistance. The surface resistance lowers quickly, and the heat is soon generated only by the materials’ resistance. The water cooled copper electrodes remove the surface heat quickly, since copper is an excellent conductor. The heat in the center has nowhere to go, as the metal of the work piece is a poor conductor of heat by comparison.

The heat remains in the center, melting the metal from the center outward. As the heat dissipates throughout the work piece in less than a second the molten, or at least plastic, state grows to meet the welding tips. When the current is stopped the copper tips cool the spot weld, causing the metal to solidify under pressure. Some coatings, such as zinc, cause localized heating due to its high resistance, and may require pulsation welding to dissipate the unwanted surface heat into the copper tips.

If excessive heat is applied, or applied too quickly, the molten area may extend to the outside, and with its high pressure (typically 30,000 psi) will escape the containment force of the tips with a burst of molten metal called expulsion. When this occurs, the metal will be thinner and have less strength than a weld with no expulsion.

The common method of checking a weld is a peel test, technically called “coach peel”, as expulsion weakens the material by thinning, and makes it pass the peel test easier. A better test is the tensile test, which is much more difficult to perform, and requires calibrated equipment.

The advantages of the method include efficient energy use, limited work piece deformation, high production rates, easy automation, and no required filler materials. When high strength in shear is needed, spot welding is used in preference to more costly mechanical fastening, such as riveting.

While the shear strength of each weld is high, the fact that the weld spots do not form a continuous seam means that the overall strength is often significantly lower than with other welding methods, limiting the usefulness of the process. It is used extensively in the automotive industry— cars can have several thousand spot welds. A specialized process, called shot welding, can be used to spot weld stainless steel.

There are three basic types of resistance welding bonds: solid state, fusion, and reflow braze. In a solid state bond, also called a thermo-compression bond, dissimilar materials with dissimilar grain structure, e.g. molybdenum to tungsten, are joined using a very short heating time, high weld energy, and high force.

There is little melting and minimum grain growth, but a definite bond and grain interface. Thus the materials actually bond while still in the “solid state”. The bonded materials typically exhibit excellent shear and tensile strength, but poor peel strength. In a fusion bond, either similar or dissimilar materials with similar grain structures are heated to the melting point (liquid state) of both.

The subsequent cooling and combination of the materials forms a “nugget” alloy of the two materials with larger grain growth. Typically, high weld energies at either short or long weld times, depending on physical characteristics, are used to produce fusion bonds. The bonded materials usually exhibit excellent tensile, peel and shear strengths. In a reflow braze bond, a resistance heating of a low temperature brazing material, such as gold or solder, is used to join either dissimilar materials or widely varied thick/thin material combinations.

The brazing material must “wet” to each part and possess a lower melting point than the two work pieces. The resultant bond has definite interfaces with minimum grain growth. Typically the process requires a longer (2 to 100 ms) heating time at low weld energy. The resultant bond exhibits excellent tensile strength, but poor peel and shear strength.

Seam welding

 

Like spot welding, seam welding relies on two electrodes to apply pressure and current to join metal sheets. However, instead of pointed electrodes, wheel-shaped electrodes roll along and often feed the work piece, making it possible to make long continuous welds. In the past, this process was used in the manufacture of beverage cans, but now its uses are more limited.

Seam welding is the act of welding two similar metals together at a seam, usually on a piece of automated equipment. This process differs from butt welding, as that is generally a process that is done on static (non-moving) metals.

Seam welding consists of two (or more) moving metals through forming production equipment. A common use of seam welding is for copper and steel piping for construction. Varying the amperage as well as speeds of the moving metals ensure a proper seam weld, and many industries use this process for creation of finished goods.

Resistance seam welding is a resistance welding process that produces a weld at the faying surfaces of overlapped parts along a length of a joint. The weld may be made by overlapping weld nuggets, a continuous weld nugget or by forging the joint as it is heated to the welding temperature by resistance to the flow of welding current.

Instead of using two cylindrical electrodes as in case of spot welding, here two circular disks are used as electrodes. The work piece is passed through the space between the two discs, and under pressure applied by the discs and current flowing through them, a continuous weld is formed.

With seam welding the material passes between two rotating wheels or welding rollers. The welding rollers perform three tasks:

Weld current transmission

Welding pressure

Feed motion transmission

The high electrical A/C current (low voltage) is supplied from a transformer.

The overlap of the work piece with its comparatively high electrical resistance is intensely heated by the current. With each positive or negative current half-wave the parts are heated to a semi-molten condition, especially at the current peaks.

The semi-molten overlap surfaces are pressed together by the welding pressure which causes them to bond together into a uniforming welded structure after cooling. Most seam welded technologies use water cooling through the weld roller assemblies due to the intense heat generated.

Seam welding is mainly used on the seams of tubes and pipes for its ease and accuracy. The resulting weld from the welding wheels is extremely durable due to the length of the contact area.

Ultrasonic seam welders use energy at a frequency around 20 kHz to vibrate the material being worked on. The vibration creates friction, the friction creates heat, causing the material to melt together. Ultrasonic welding is the process used to create the plastic packages that are extremely hard to open without destroying the package

Last Updated on Friday, 10 August 2012 00:58

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October 27, 2014 by clayton Leave a Comment

History of Robotics

A robot by definition is “an automatic device that performs functions normally ascribed to humans or a machine in the form of a human.”

The concept of robots is a very old one yet the actual word robot was invented in the 20th century from the Czechoslovakian word robota or robotnik meaning slave, servant, or forced labor. Robots don’t have to look or act like humans but they do need to be flexible so they can perform different tasks.

Early industrial robots handled radioactive material in atomic labs and were called master/slave manipulators. They were connected together with mechanical linkages and steel cables. Remote arm manipulators can now be moved by push buttons, switches or joysticks.

Current robots have advanced sensory systems that process information and appear to function as if they have brains. Their “brain” is actually a form of computerized artificial intelligence (AI). AI allows a robot to perceive conditions and decide upon a course of action based on those conditions.

A robot can include any of the following components:

effectors – “arms”, “legs”, “hands”, “feet”

sensors – parts that act like senses and can detect objects or things like heat and light and convert the object information into symbols that computers understand

computer – the brain that contains instructions called algorithms to control the robot

equipment – this includes tools and mechanical fixtures

Characteristics that make robots different from regular machinery are that robots usually function by themselves, are sensitive to their environment, adapt to variations in the environment or to errors in prior performance, are task oriented and often have the ability to try different methods to accomplish a task.

Common industrial robots are generally heavy rigid devices limited to manufacturing. They operate in precisely structured environments and perform single highly repetitive tasks under preprogrammed control. There were an estimated 720,000 industrial robots in 1998.

The History of Industrial Robotics in the Automotive Plants

In 1956, an historic meeting occurred between George Devol and Joseph Engelberger. The two met over cocktails to discuss the writings of Isaac Asimov. The result of this meeting was that Devol and Engelberger agreed to work on creating a robot together. Their first robot (the Unimate) served at a General Motors plant working with heated die-casting machines. Engelberger started a manufacturing company called Unimation, which stood for Universal Automation, the first commercial company to produce robots. Devol wrote the necessary patents for Unimation. Unimation is still in production today.

MC Welding supports a variety of robotic applications such as arc welding, spot welding, machine loading, and palletizing, which utilize robotic grippers, sealer applications, handling, riveting, toxing, laser welding, EHR camera systems etc.

Our experience with Robot Programming includes working with products such as:

Kuka, Kawasaki, Motoman, ABB, Fanuc, Unimate, Achma, Nachi.

Some of the projects our robot programmers have worked on are:

VW Fushan China

BMW Shenyang China

Audi Changchun China

VW Chengdu China

Ford Tempo Topaz, Oakville Canada

Ford Escort, South Africa and Argentina

Chrysler LH, Canada

Opel Corsa, South Africa

Ford Fiesta, South Africa

Ford Mondeo, South Africa

Ford Focus, Valencia, Spain and Saarlouis, Germany

Ford Transit Genk Belgium

Ford Mondeo, Genk Belgium

Ford Fiesta, Valencia Spain,

Ford Freestar, Oakville Canada

BMW E90, South Africa

Mercedes Benz W204 South Africa

Tata Motors India

VW South Africa

VW India

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October 27, 2014 by clayton Leave a Comment

Project management

Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing, and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific project goals and objectives. It is sometimes conflated with program management, however technically a program is actually a higher level construct: a group of related and somehow interdependent projects.

A project is a temporary endeavor, having a defined beginning and end (usually constrained by date, but can be by funding or deliverables , undertaken to meet unique goals and objectives, usually to bring about beneficial change or added value. The temporary nature of projects stands in contrast to business as usual (or operations), which are repetitive, permanent or semi-permanent functional work to produce products or services. In practice, the management of these two systems is often found to be quite different, and as such requires the development of distinct technical skills and the adoption of separate management.

The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of the project goals and objectives while honoring the preconceived project constraints. Typical constraints are scope, time, and budget. The secondary—and more ambitious—challenge is to optimize the allocation and integration of inputs necessary to meet pre-defined objectives.

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October 27, 2014 by clayton Leave a Comment

Mechanical Engineering

Mechanical Engineering is an engineering discipline that was developed from the application of principles from physics and materials science. According to the American Heritage Dictionary, it is the branch of engineering that encompasses the generation and application of heat and mechanical power and the design, production, and use of machines and tools. It is one of the oldest and broadest engineering disciplines.

The field requires a solid understanding of core concepts including mechanics, kinematics, thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, heat transfer, materials science, and energy. Mechanical engineers use the core principles as well as other knowledge in the field to design and analyze manufacturing plants, industrial equipment and machinery, heating and cooling systems, motor vehicles, aircraft, watercraft, robotics, medical devices and more.

Development

Applications of mechanical engineering are found in the records of many ancient and medieval societies throughout the globe. In ancient Greece, the works of Archimedes (287 BC–212 BC) and Heron of Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD) deeply influenced mechanics in the Western tradition. In China, Zhang Heng (78–139 AD) improved a water clock and invented a seismometer, and Ma Jun (200–265 AD) invented a chariot with differential gears. The medieval Chinese horologist and engineer Su Song(1020–1101 AD) incorporated an escapement mechanism into his astronomical clock tower two centuries before any escapement could be found in clocks of medieval Europe, as well as the world’s first known endless power-transmitting chain drive.

During the years from 7th to 15th century, the era called the Islamic Golden Age, there have been remarkable contributions from Muslim inventors in the field of mechanical technology. Al-Jazari, who was one of them, wrote his famous Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices in 1206, and presented many mechanical designs. He is also considered to be the inventor of such mechanical devices which now form the very basic of mechanisms, such as the crankshaft and camshaft.

During the early 19th century in England, Germany and Scotland, the development of machine tools led mechanical engineering to develop as a separate field within engineering, providing manufacturing machines and the engines to power them.The first British professional society of mechanical engineers was formed in 1847, thirty years after civil engineers formed the first such professional society.On the European continent, Johann von Zimmermann (1820 – 1901) founded the first factory for grinding machines in Chemnitz (Germany) in 1848. In the United States, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) was formed in 1880, becoming the third such professional engineering society, after the American Society of Civil Engineers (1852) and theAmerican Institute of Mining Engineers (1871). The first schools in the United States to offer an engineering education were the United States Military Academy in 1817, an institution now known as Norwich University in 1819, and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1825. Education in mechanical engineering has historically been based on a strong foundation in mathematics and science.

The field of mechanical engineering is considered among the broadest of engineering disciplines. The work of mechanical engineering ranges from the depths of the ocean to outer space.

Education

Degrees in mechanical engineering are offered at universities worldwide. In Bangladesh, China, India, Nepal, North America, and Pakistan, mechanical engineering programs typically take four to five years and result in a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc), Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech), Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng), or Bachelor of Applied Science (B.A.Sc) degree, in or with emphasis in mechanical engineering. In Spain, Portugal and most of South America, where neither BSc nor BTech programs have been adopted, the formal name for the degree is “Mechanical Engineer”, and the course work is based on five or six years of training. In Italy the course work is based on five years of training; but in order to qualify as an Engineer you have to pass a state exam at the end of the course.

In the U.S., most undergraduate mechanical engineering programs are accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) to ensure similar course requirements and standards among universities. The ABET web site lists 276 accredited mechanical engineering programs as of June 19, 2006. Mechanical engineering programs in Canada are accredited by the Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board (CEAB), and most other countries offering engineering degrees have similar accreditation societies.

Some mechanical engineers go on to pursue a postgraduate degree such as a Master of Engineering, Master of Technology, Master of Science, Master of Engineering Management (MEng.Mgt or MEM), a Doctor of Philosophy in engineering (EngD, PhD) or an engineer’s degree. The master’s and engineer’s degrees may or may not include research. The Doctor of Philosophy includes a significant research component and is often viewed as the entry point to academia.

Coursework

Standards set by each country’s accreditation society are intended to provide uniformity in fundamental subject material, promote competence among graduating engineers, and to maintain confidence in the engineering profession as a whole. Engineering programs in the U.S., for instance, are required by ABET to show that their students can “work professionally in both thermal and mechanical systems areas. The specific courses required to graduate, however, may differ from program to program. Universities will often combine multiple subjects into a single class or split a subject into multiple classes, depending on the faculty available and the university’s major area(s) of research. Fundamental subjects of mechanical engineering usually include:

Statics and dynamics

Strength of materials and solid mechanics

Instrumentation and measurement

Thermodynamics, heat transfer, energy conversion, and HVAC

Fluid mechanics and fluid dynamics

Mechanism design (including kinematics and dynamics)

Manufacturing technology or processes

Hydraulics and pneumatics

Mathematics – in particular, calculus, differential equations, and linear algebra.

Engineering design

Mechatronics and control theory

Material Engineering

Drafting, CAD (including solid modeling), and CAM

Mechanical engineers are also expected to understand and be able to apply basic concepts from chemistry, chemical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, and physics. Most mechanical engineering programs include several semesters of calculus, as well as advanced mathematical concepts which may include differential equations and partial differential equations, linear and modern algebra, and differential geometry, among others.

In addition to the core mechanical engineering curriculum, many mechanical engineering programs offer more specialized programs and classes, such as robotics, transport and logistics, cryogenics, fuel technology, automotive engineering, biomechanics, vibration, optics and others, if a separate department does not exist for these subjects.

Most mechanical engineering programs also require varying amounts of research or community projects to gain practical problem-solving experience. In the United States it is common for mechanical engineering students to complete one or more internships while studying, though this is not typically mandated by the university.

Modern tools

Many mechanical engineering companies, especially those in industrialized nations, have begun to incorporate computer-aided engineering(CAE) programs into their existing design and analysis processes, including 2D and 3D solid modeling computer-aided design (CAD). This method has many benefits, including easier and more exhaustive visualization of products, the ability to create virtual assemblies of parts, and the ease of use in designing mating interfaces and tolerances.

Other CAE programs commonly used by mechanical engineers include product lifecycle management (PLM) tools and analysis tools used to perform complex simulations. Analysis tools may be used to predict product response to expected loads, including fatigue life and manufacturability. These tools include finite element analysis (FEA), computational fluid dynamics (CFD), and computer-aided manufacturing(CAM).

Using CAE programs, a mechanical design team can quickly and cheaply iterate the design process to develop a product that better meets cost, performance, and other constraints. No physical prototype need be created until the design nears completion, allowing hundreds or thousands of designs to be evaluated, instead of a relative few. In addition, CAE analysis programs can model complicated physical phenomena which cannot be solved by hand, such as viscoelasticity, complex contact between mating parts, or non-Newtonian flows

As mechanical engineering begins to merge with other disciplines, as seen in mechatronics, multidisciplinary design optimization (MDO) is being used with other CAE programs to automate and improve the iterative design process. MDO tools wrap around existing CAE processes, allowing product evaluation to continue even after the analyst goes home for the day. They also utilize sophisticated optimization algorithms to more intelligently explore possible designs, often finding better, innovative solutions to difficult multidisciplinary design problems.

Subdisciplines

The field of mechanical engineering can be thought of as a collection of many mechanical disciplines. Several of these sub disciplines which are typically taught at the undergraduate level are listed below, with a brief explanation and the most common application of each. Some of these sub disciplines are unique to mechanical engineering, while others are a combination of mechanical engineering and one or more other disciplines. Most work that a mechanical engineer does uses skills and techniques from several of these sub disciplines, as well as specialized sub disciplines. Specialized sub disciplines, as used in this article, are more likely to be the subject of graduate studies or on-the-job training than undergraduate research. Several specialized sub disciplines are discussed in this section.

Mechanics

Main article: Mechanics

Mechanics is, in the most general sense, the study of forces and their effect upon matter. Typically, engineering mechanics is used to analyze and predict the acceleration and deformation (both elasticand plastic) of objects under known forces (also called loads) or stresses. Subdisciplines of mechanics include

Statics, the study of non-moving bodies under known loads, how forces affect static bodies

Dynamics (or kinetics), the study of how forces affect moving bodies

Mechanics of materials, the study of how different materials deform under various types of stress

Fluid mechanics, the study of how fluids react to forces

Continuum mechanics, a method of applying mechanics that assumes that objects are continuous (rather than discrete)

Mechanical engineers typically use mechanics in the design or analysis phases of engineering. If the engineering project were the design of a vehicle, statics might be employed to design the frame of the vehicle, in order to evaluate where the stresses will be most intense. Dynamics might be used when designing the car’s engine, to evaluate the forces in the pistons and cams as the engine cycles. Mechanics of materials might be used to choose appropriate materials for the frame and engine. Fluid mechanics might be used to design a ventilation system for the vehicle (see HVAC), or to design the intake system for the engine.

Kinematics

Main article: Kinematics

Kinematics is the study of the motion of bodies (objects) and systems (groups of objects), while ignoring the forces that cause the motion. The movement of a crane and the oscillations of a piston in an engine are both simple kinematic systems. The crane is a type of open kinematic chain, while the piston is part of a closed four-bar linkage.

Mechanical engineers typically use kinematics in the design and analysis of mechanisms. Kinematics can be used to find the possible range of motion for a given mechanism, or, working in reverse, can be used to design a mechanism that has a desired range of motion.

Mechatronics and robotics

Main articles: Mechatronics and Robotics

Mechatronics is an interdisciplinary branch of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and software engineering that is concerned with integrating electrical and mechanical engineering to create hybrid systems. In this way, machines can be automated through the use of electric motors, servo-mechanisms, and other electrical systems in conjunction with special software. A common example of a mechatronics system is a CD-ROM drive. Mechanical systems open and close the drive, spin the CD and move the laser, while an optical system reads the data on the CD and converts it to bits. Integrated software controls the process and communicates the contents of the CD to the computer.

Robotics is the application of mechatronics to create robots, which are often used in industry to perform tasks that are dangerous, unpleasant, or repetitive. These robots may be of any shape and size, but all are preprogrammed and interact physically with the world. To create a robot, an engineer typically employs kinematics (to determine the robot’s range of motion) and mechanics (to determine the stresses within the robot).

Robots are used extensively in industrial engineering. They allow businesses to save money on labor, perform tasks that are either too dangerous or too precise for humans to perform them economically, and to insure better quality. Many companies employ assembly lines of robots, and some factories are so robotized that they can run by themselves. Outside the factory, robots have been employed in bomb disposal, space exploration, and many other fields. Robots are also sold for various residential applications.

Structural analysis

Main articles: Structural analysis and Failure analysis

Structural analysis is the branch of mechanical engineering (and also civil engineering) devoted to examining why and how objects fail and to fix the objects and their performance. Structural failures occur in two general modes: static failure, and fatigue failure. Static structural failure occurs when, upon being loaded (having a force applied) the object being analyzed either breaks or is deformed plastically, depending on the criterion for failure. Fatigue failure occurs when an object fails after a number of repeated loading and unloading cycles. Fatigue failure occurs because of imperfections in the object: a microscopic crack on the surface of the object, for instance, will grow slightly with each cycle (propagation) until the crack is large enough to cause ultimate failure.

Failure is not simply defined as when a part breaks, however; it is defined as when a part does not operate as intended. Some systems, such as the perforated top sections of some plastic bags, are designed to break. If these systems do not break, failure analysis might be employed to determine the cause.

Structural analysis is often used by mechanical engineers after a failure has occurred, or when designing to prevent failure. Engineers often use online documents and books such as those published by ASM to aid them in determining the type of failure and possible causes.

Structural analysis may be used in the office when designing parts, in the field to analyze failed parts, or in laboratories where parts might undergo controlled failure tests.

Thermodynamics and thermo-science

Main article: Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is an applied science used in several branches of engineering, including mechanical and chemical engineering. At its simplest, thermodynamics is the study of energy, its use and transformation through a system. Typically, engineering thermodynamics is concerned with changing energy from one form to another. As an example, automotive engines convert chemical energy (enthalpy) from the fuel into heat, and then into mechanical work that eventually turns the wheels.

Thermodynamics principles are used by mechanical engineers in the fields of heat transfer, thermo fluids, and energy conversion. Mechanical engineers use thermo-science to design engines and power plants, heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems, heat exchangers, heat sinks, radiators, refrigeration, insulation, and others.

Drafting

Main articles: Technical drawing and CNC

Drafting or technical drawing is the means by which mechanical engineers create instructions for manufacturing parts. A technical drawing can be a computer model or hand-drawn schematic showing all the dimensions necessary to manufacture a part, as well as assembly notes, a list of required materials, and other pertinent information. A U.S. mechanical engineer or skilled worker who creates technical drawings may be referred to as a drafter or draftsman. Drafting has historically been a two-dimensional process, but computer-aided design (CAD) programs now allow the designer to create in three dimensions.

Instructions for manufacturing a part must be fed to the necessary machinery, either manually, through programmed instructions, or through the use of a computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) or combined CAD/CAM program. Optionally, an engineer may also manually manufacture a part using the technical drawings, but this is becoming an increasing rarity, with the advent of computer numerically controlled (CNC) manufacturing. Engineers primarily manually manufacture parts in the areas of applied spray coatings, finishes, and other processes that cannot economically or practically be done by a machine.

Drafting is used in nearly every subdiscipline of mechanical engineering, and by many other branches of engineering and architecture. Three-dimensional models created using CAD software are also commonly used in finite element analysis (FEA) and computational fluid dynamics(CFD).

Frontiers of research

Mechanical engineers are constantly pushing the boundaries of what is physically possible in order to produce safer, cheaper, and more efficient machines and mechanical systems. Some technologies at the cutting edge of mechanical engineering are listed below (see also exploratory engineering).

Micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMS)

Micron-scale mechanical components such as springs, gears, fluidic and heat transfer devices are fabricated from a variety of substrate materials such as silicon, glass and polymers like SU8. Examples of MEMS components will be the accelerometers that are used as car airbag sensors, gyroscopes for precise positioning and microfluidic devices used in biomedical applications.

Friction stir welding (FSW)

Main article: Friction stir welding

Friction stir welding, a new type of welding, was discovered in 1991 by The Welding Institute (TWI). This innovative steady state (non-fusion) welding technique joins materials previously un-weldable, including several aluminum alloys. It may play an important role in the future construction of airplanes, potentially replacing rivets. Current uses of this technology to date include welding the seams of the aluminum main Space Shuttle external tank, Orion Crew Vehicle test article, Boeing Delta II and Delta IV Expendable Launch Vehicles and the SpaceX Falcon 1 rocket, armor plating for amphibious assault ships, and welding the wings and fuselage panels of the new Eclipse 500 aircraft from Eclipse Aviation among an increasingly growing pool of uses.

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MC-Welding
Plot 17 Eland street, Perseverance, Despatch,South Africa
Postal Address : Po.Box 243, Despatch, South Africa

Contact Information

Email: clayton.turner@mc-welding.com Phone: +27-(0)419331920
Cell: +27-(0)84 552 2111
Fax: +27-(0)419331920

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